Biblioteka Uniwersytecka

Preface . . xi

I Foundations . . 1

1 Introduction . . 3
1.1 Overview . . 4
1.2 History of Machine Translation . . 14
1.3 Applications . . 20
1.4 Available Resources . . 23
1.5 Summary . . 26

2 Words, Sentences, Corpora . . 33
2.1 Words . . 33
2.2 Sentences . . 45
2.3 Corpora . . 53
2.4 Summary . . 57

3 Probability Theory . . 63
3.1 Estimating Probability Distributions . . 63
3.2 Calculating Probability Distributions . . 67
3.3 Properties of Probability Distributions . . 71
3.4 Summary . . 75

II Core Methods . . 79

4 Word-Based Models . . 81
4.1 Machine Translation by Translating Words . . 81
4.2 Learning Lexical Translation Models . . 87
4.3 Ensuring Fluent Output . . 94
4.4 Higher IBM Models . . 96
4.5 Word Alignment . . 113
4.6 Summary . . 118

5 Phrase-Based Models . . 127
5.1 Standard Model . . 127
5.2 Learning a Phrase Translation Table . . 130
5.3 Extensions to the Translation Model . . 136
5.4 Extensions to the Reordering Model . . 142
5.5 EM Training of Phrase-Based Models . . 145
5.6 Summary . . 148

6 Decoding . . 155
6.1 Translation Process . . 156
6.2 Beam Search . . 158
6.3 Future Cost Estimation . . 167
6.4 Other Decoding Algorithms . . 172
6.5 Summary . . 176

7 Language Models . . 181
7.1 N-Gram Language Models . . 182
7.2 Count Smoothing . . 188
7.3 Interpolation and Back-off . . 196
7.4 Managing the Size of the Model . . 204
7.5 Summary . . 212

8 Evaluation . . 217
8.1 Manual Evaluation . . 218
8.2 Automatic Evaluation . . 222
8.3 Hypothesis Testing . . 232
8.4 Task-Oriented Evaluation . . 237
8.5 Summary . . 240

III Advanced Topics . . 247

9 Discriminative Training . . 249
9.1 Finding Candidate Translations . . 250
9.2 Principles of Discriminative Methods . . 255
9.3 Parameter Tuning . . 263
9.4 Large-Scale Discriminative Training . . 272
9.5 Posterior Methods and System Combination . . 278
9.6 Summary . . 283

10 Integrating Linguistic Information . . 289
10.1 Transliteration . . 291
10.2 Morphology . . 296
10.3 Syntactic Restructuring . . 302
10.4 Syntactic Features . . 310
10.5 Factored Translation Models . . 314
10.6 Summary . . 320

11 Tree-Based Models . . 331
11.1 Synchronous Grammars . . 331
11.2 Learning Synchronous Grammars . . 337
11.3 Decoding by Parsing . . 346
11.4 Summary . . 363

Bibliography . . 371
Author Index . . 416
Index . . 427

Introduction . . 3
The Greenroom . . 8
The Hunter and the Game . . 12
Hunting Instincts . . 17
The Lamppost and the Alley . . 24
The Fatal Spin . . 28
The Problem with "Training," or "Slaves of the Ant-God, Throog" . . 31
Emotion . . 38
The Map and the Territory . . 41
Theatrical Forms . . 45
Totalitarian Tendencies . . 50
Repression . . 58
Politically Correct . . 63
Great American Plays and Great American Poetry . . 70
The Bathing Machine . . 75
Stagecraft . . 81
Impertinence . . 88
The End of Adolescence . . 90
Subvention . . 95
Two Teachers . . 103
A Culture of Confession . . 108
Theatrical Culture . . 115
Third Parties . . 120
On the General Uselessness of the Rehearsal Process . . 128
The Fallacy of the Director . . 135
Directing for the Stage . . 144
Time . . 152
Acknowledgments . . 157

Acknowledgments . . vii
Preface . . ix

1 The Ancient Quarrel: Philosophy and Literature . . 1
2 Derrida, Hermeneutics and Deconstruction . . 26
3 Deleuze: Against Interpretation . . 56
4 Levinas and the Resistance to Reading . . 81
5 Zizek's Idiotic Enjoyment . . 108
6 Cavell and the Claim of Reading . . 135
7 Conclusion: In Praise of Overreading . . 164

Notes . . 189
Bibliography . . 200
Index . . 215

Contributors . . xix

Section One: Theoretical and Conceptual Foundations

Part I: Ethics Theory and Decision Making
Introduction . . 3
1. An Explanation and a Method for the Ethics of Journalism . . 9
2. Moral Development and Journalism . . 25

Part II: History and Justification
Introduction . . 35
3. Press Freedom and Responsibility . . 39
4. The Moral Justification for Journalism . . 53
5. The Search for Global Media Ethics . . 69

Part III: What Is Journalism? Who Is a Journalist?
Introduction . . 85
6. Why Journalism Is a Profession . . 91
7. Who Is a Journalist? . . 103
8. Norms and the Network: Journalistic Ethics in a Shared Media Space . . 117

Part IV: Objectivity
Introduction . . 131
9. Inventing Objectivity: New Philosophical Foundations . . 137
10. Is Objective News Possible? . . 153

Section Two: The Practice of Journalism

Part V: The Business of Journalism
Introduction . . 167
11. Journalism's Tangled Web: Business, Ethics, and Professional Practice . . 171
12. The Decline of the News Business . . 185
13. Covering a World That's Falling Apart, When Yours Is Too . . 193

Part VI: Privacy
Introduction . . 197
14. The Ethics of Privacy . . 203
15. Understanding and Respecting Privacy . . 215

Part VII: Approaching the News: Reporters and Consumers
Introduction . . 231
16. Conflicting Loyalties and Personal Choices . . 237
17. A Robust Future for Conflict of Interest . . 249
18. Respecting Sources' Confidentiality: Critical but Not Absolute . . 271
19. The Ethical Obligations of News Consumers . . 283

Part VIII: Getting the Story
Introduction . . 297
20. The Ethos of "Getting the Story" . . 301
21. Mitigation Watchdogs: The Ethical Foundation for a Journalist's Role . . 311

Part IX: Image Ethics
Introduction . . 325
22. Visual Ethics: An Integrative Approach to Ethical Practice in Visual Journalism . . 331
23. Ethics and Images: Five Major Concerns . . 351

Index . . 359

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . viii
INTRODUCTION . . ix
Genre . . ix
Authorship . . x
Artistic Achievement . . xvi
Sources and Influences . . xxiv
Editorial Policy . . xxx
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY . . xxxiii

FIERABRAS AND FLORIPAS
Prologue . . 1
The First Geste: Vanity. Tells of the Destruction of Rome . . 5
The Second Geste: Submission. Tells of the Duel between Fierabras and Oliver . . 45
The Third Geste: Desires. Tells of Strain and Striving . . 91
The Fourth Geste: Deserts. Tells of Pain and Thriving . . 161

GLOSSARY . . 223
APPENDIX I: Extracts from the French Original . . 225
APPENDIX II: Fierabras ex Libris . . 245

ILLUSTRATIONS . . 9
CONTRIBUTORS . . 15
INTRODUCTION . . 19

I. FAITH AND FANTASY IN WRITTEN TEXTS AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES
1 Transformative Imagery in Dante: Inferno XXV and Purgatorio XXV . . 29
2 Le Miroir de I'ame pecheresse, poesie spirituelle et rhetorique. Exemplum et imaginaire: moteurs de cheminement de foi . . 43
3 Faith, Power, and the Imagined Christian Community: A Dialogue Between Erasmus and Tyndale . . 57
4 Imagination as Exegesis in the Apocalypsis nova Attributed to Blessed Amadeus da Silva . . 71
5 The Imaginative Creation of a Builder Patron Saint: The Venetian 'Rediscovery' of Magnus . . 85
6 The Intercession of Polish Saints in Old Polish Sermons of the First Half of the Seventeenth Century . . 111
7 Friulian Incantations From Inquisition Trials of the Seventeenth Century . . 123
8 Talking to the Devil in the Early Modern Popular Imagination . . 135
9 La Cloture dans le Monde: Enclosure and the Religious Imagination in Histoire de I'ordre des Religieuses Filles de Notre-Dame . . 147
10 An Italian Jesuit in Canada: Faith and Imagination in Bressani's Breve Relatione of 1653 . . 161

II. FAITH AND FANTASY IN ART
11 Faith and Vision in Leon Battista Alberti and Nicholas Cusanus: Reality and Rhetoric in Sacred Space . . 173
12 Sainte Anne en Immaculee Conception dans un vitrail de 1'Arbre de Jesse (Apt,Vaucluse): L'invention d'une image, 1501 . . 191
13 Faith, Paragone, and Commemoration in Durer's 'Christomorphic' Self-Portrait of 1500 . . 209
14 Rembrandt's Ten Commandments: Pluralism and the Religious Imagination . . 229
15 The Column of Predestination: Some Remarks on Invention in Protestant Reformed Imagery . . 247
16 Hugo van der Goes's Portinari Altarpiece and the Heart of Devotion . . 269
17 The Jerusalem Temple: Rembrandt's Faith and Fantasy . . 291
18 Preservation as Transcendent Vision: Antonio Duca and Santa Maria degli Angeli . . 315
19 "The Difference of Our Spirit": Michael Radford Reconfigures Jewish-Christian Encounters in his Film of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice . . 331

INDEX . . 347

Editor's Foreword . . vii
Acronyms and Abbreviations . . ix
Chronology . . xi
Introduction . . xxxiii

The Dictionary . . 1

Bibliography . . 325
About the Author . . 431

Illustrations . . vii
Preface . . xi
Acknowledgements . . xvii
DVD Acknowledgements . . xviii

1 First Day: Acting Therapy - The Voice and the Life - The beginnings . . 1
2 Second Day: Techniques - 'Sing your Life'- Teachers and masters - Grotowski and the company . . 11
3 Third Day: Paratheatre — The Organic Life and the Process — Ryszard Cieślak . . 29
4 Fourth Day: Meeting with the unknown — Montage . . 38
5 Fifth Day: The 'Body Alphabet' . . 35
6 Images of the 'Body Alphabet' . . 66
7 Sixth Day: The text - Organic and cultural differences - Voice as a vehicle . . 93
8 Seventh Day: The attention - Necessity, Organic Process, nostalgia . . 109
9 Eighth Day: The productions — Meeting Grotowski - The Teatr Laboratorium . . 121
10 Ninth Day: Colleagues and collaborators . . 146

Appendix: Grotowski, Theatre and Beyond From Stanislavski to Grotowski - The Theatre of Productions (1959-69) - Paratheatre (1970-78) - Theatre of Sources (1979-82) and after . . 157

Photographs . . 167
Notes . . 188

Introduzione . . 5

Capitolo Primo - Una introduzione al pensiero di Fiatone . . 7
1. L'inizio della riflessione sul pensiero platonico. Il Filebo . . 7
2. L' «essere-così-e-così» (So-und-so-sein) dei logoi . . 12
Note al capitolo primo . . 25

Capitolo Secondo - Conoscenza e ontologia nella teoria delle idee . . 43
1. La teoria delle idee . . 43
2. Essere ed eidos. La methexis . . 48
Note al capitolo secondo . . 54

Capitolo Terzo - Logos, Idea, Pseudos. 11 problema della comprensione . . 67
1. Logos come relazione . . 67
2. Eidos e Idea (conoscenza e comprensione) . . 69
2.1 Logos e psuché . . 74
3. La potenza del nulla. Pseudos . . 75
3.1 La nullità del nulla, Oltre Heidegger . . 81
Note al capitolo terzo . . 84

Capitolo Quarto - Nei pressi del Bene . . 93
1. Verso il Bene. La filosofia pratica di Fiatone. Il Filebo . . 93
a. Proporzione. Summetria . . 99
b. Verità. Aletheia . . 101
c. Bellezza. Kallos . . 106
Note al capitolo quarto . . 112

Capitolo Quinto - L'Idea del Bene. I principi nella metamatematica platonica . . 123
1. L'idea del divino, l'Idea del Bene . . 123
2. Metafìsica e metamatematica. Fiatone e Aristotele . . 130
3. La fìsica e la metamatematica di Platone . . 140
4. Agrapha dogmata. I principi platonici . . 150
Note al capitolo quinto . . 159

Capitolo Sesto - Metacritica . . 181
1. L'apporto di Heidegger alle interpretazioni platoniche di Gadamer . . 181
2. Gadamer e la "nuova interpretazione di Platone', il «sistema» platonico . . 188
3. Le recenti interpretazioni del Platone di Gadamer, un tentativo di risposta alle accuse di ambiguità . . 194
Note al capitolo sesto . . 202

Bibliografìa . . 211

PREFACE . . 8

The Grand Duchy of Finland . . 10

BIRTH IN A POSITIVE MOOD . . 10
Short war and long peace at Porvoo in 1809 . . 12
Administrative institutions are established . . 14
Finland's financial system finds form in Porvoo . . 18
European finances under reform in the push of Enlightenment . . 20
Porvoo in a European intellectual context . . 24
Traditions from Sweden . . 25
Finland's first heads of finance and leading civil servants . . 29  
The machinery . . 32
The machinery at work . . 35
The budgeting and accounting system . . 38

NICHOLAS I STALLS THE REFORMS . . 40
Leading personnel and administrative structures . . 42
Financial system and taxation . . 46

ALEXANDER II OPENS WINDOWS TO REFORMS . . 40
Economic development and economic policies . . 51
Political leadership of finances . . 55
Monetary reforms . . 56
Budgetary reforms . . 58
Reforms in financial administration . . 65

POLITICAL REACTION AND ECONOMIC VITALITY . . 68
Political backlash . . 71
Liberal economic reforms continue . . 72
New winds in nominations . . 74
Minor reforms in budgeting and taxation . . 76
Finance and economic policies are separated into different departments . . 80

FINANCES IN STATE-BUILDING AND NATION-BUILDING . . 83

Independent Finland . . 89

EARLY YEARS OF INDEPENDENCE 1917-1939 . . 89
Independence, suddenly . . 92
Principles of governance are defined . . 95
Economy recovers amid political crisis and international economic depressions . . 99
Brevity and turbulence in political leadership . . 103
Money and monetary policy dominates the economy and economic policies . . 106
Planning boards and committees . . 108
Incremental reforms in the financial management system . . 110
Structure and functions of the Ministry . . 114

NEW START DURING THE WAR . . 116
Centralization of power . . 118
Controlled war economy . . 122
Economic planning, a new task for the Ministry of Finance . . 124
More control to budgetary appropriations . . 128
Need for rationalization of administration . . 130
Structural reform of the Ministry . . 131

GROWING EMPHASIS ON ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL MATTERS . . 133
Politics takes a left turn . . 136
Short-lived governments and political turmoil . . 138
Discontinuity in the political leadership of the Ministry . . 140
From rationing to regulation of the economy and towards ever deeper economic integration . . 141
Towards rational economic policies and planning . . 146
Post-war economic planning . . 148
Control of expenditure dominates budgetary policies and reforms . . 153
From rationalization towards administrative modernization . . 160
Slow reforms inside the Ministry of Finance . . 163
 Top management 163
 Personnel . . 165
A way towards a general coordinator of the government . . 166

General Coordinator of the Public Sector . . 168

Towards stable political leadership . . 171
Firm management team at the top . . 176
Growth-oriented economic policies . . 178
Birth of a new welfare state . . 181
Planning becomes the magic word . . 185
Reforming the financial management system . . 187
 Annual budgeting . . 188
 Medium-term planning . . 189
 ex ante finance control . . 190
From rationalization to steering of administrative modernization . . 191
 Personnel policies . . 194
Reforming the Ministry to support its growing responsibilities . . 195

From Management of Depression to National European Economic Policy Coordination . . 197
Continuity in governments in spite of changing political constellations . . 199
Minister of Finance becomes Number Two in the Government . . 200
From closed economy to open markets and market liberalization . . 205
The 1980s and new economic doctrines . . 206
Profound financial management reforms . . 213
 Reforms start from constitution and legislation... . . 214
 ...continue in annual budgeting and medium-term frame budgeting... . . 214
 ...adaptation of performance management... . . 217
 ...use of market mechanisms... . . 218
 ...and reforms in the system of local government financing . . 220
From traditional public administration to new public management . . 221
 Personnel policies . . 224
Internal structural turmoil in the Ministry of Finance . . 225

The Many Roles of the Ministry . . 229

Notes . . 234
Bibliography . . 240
Index . . 249
Appendix 1. Heads of the Departments . . 252
Appendix 2. Ministers of Finance . . 254
Illustrations . . 262